Photo: C. Mallory (iNaturalist)

Eragrostis echinochloidea Risk Assessment

Synonyms: Eragrostis auriculata

Common names: African lovegrass, tick grass, Krummelgras

Eragrostis echinochloidea -- California

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Created by: Melanie Davis
Created on: Sunday, Sep 22nd, 2024
Evaluation Summary
Erogrostis echinochloidea Staph (Poaceae), commonly African lovegrass, is a perennial grass that can reach up to a meter tall. It is native to arid regions of South Africa and has been newly documented in California as of 2020. It has been slowly spread throughout the southwest in Arizona and Mexico where it was introduced the 1940's, possibly with the Soil Conservation Service, and favors disturbed sites, roadsides, clay flats, grassy flats, slopes, river margins, cultivated areas, parking lots, sidewalks, gravel, near highways, vacant lots and cattle farms. Erogrostis echinochloidea primarily reproduces sexually through germination, and while has the potential for asexual, or vegetative, reproduction, it is slow spreading. This species is considered introduced or naturalized where it is found, likely because of it's slow growth rates. Here, we find that it should be considered a species of concern in climates like California's, likely for its ecological preferences, ability to generate a high number of viable seeds, long flowering period, because it can contribute to fine fuels that drive wildfires, and because it's adaptation to regions drier than California. Members of the Eragrostis genus have been found to be adapted to fire and can re-sprout vigorously after burning. This species is moderately palatable to livestock and has not been found to be toxic. Recommended mechanisms for removal of species in this genus that are considered invasive include include grazing, herbicide treatments, mechanical, and manual removal.
General Evaluation Information
Date of Evaluation: 
September 23, 2024
Evaluation Time (hrs): 
10 Hours
Evaluation Status: 
Completed
Plant Information
Plant: 
Eragrostis echinochloidea
Plant Material: 
If the plant is a cultivar, and if the cultivar's behavior differs from its parent's (behavior), explain how: 
Not a cultivar.
Regional Information
Region Name: 
California
Climate Matching Map
These maps were built using a toolkit created in collaboration between GreenInfo Network, PlantRight, Cal-IPC, and Agricultural Sustainability Institute at UC Davis.
PRE Climate Map (external link)
Climate Matching Maps PDF: 
AttachmentSize
PDF icon ClimateMatch-Eragrostis_echinochloidea-California-20240922.pdf1.11 MB
Invasive History and Climate Matching
1. Has the species (or cultivar or variety, if applicable; applies to subsequent "species" questions) become naturalized where it is not native?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
Very High
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochloidea is native to South Africa and is introduced in Arizona, California, northern Mexico, and Israel. It is considered naturalized in Arizona and Mexico. Randall (2017) lists E. echinochloidea as naturalized in Europe and Israel, however there is not sufficient evidence with species documentation to support this as there are very little documentation of this taxon in these regions. In Arizona and Mexico, however, it is well supported in literature, management, and documentation that this taxon is naturalized.
Reference(s): 
2. Is the species (or cultivar or variety) noted as being naturalized in the US or world in a similar climate?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
2
Confidence Level: 
Very High
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochloidea is naturalized in Arizona, which has a similar climate to California (the region in question). Regions that it occupies in Mexico also share a similar climate. Where it is native in South Africa, it can be found in the western Cape and near Johannesburg, which also share a similar climate to California. However, this is the edge of the species distribution in its native range, and it is primarily found in a region of South Africa which does not match the climate of California. Randall (2017) notes that its preferred climates are Mediterranean, Subtropical, and Tropical.
Reference(s): 
3. Is the species (or cultivar or variety) noted as being invasive in the U.S. or world?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
2
Confidence Level: 
High
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochloidea is considered invasive in Mexico by Randall (2017). Randall cites a 2006 web page from Conabio that is no longer available and since 2006 there have been regulation changes regarding the definition changes of 'invasiveness' in Mexico, and because I was unable to find Eragrostris echinochloidea on any recent lists I can only assume that it is not longer considered invasive here. However, Pima County (Webb 2020) considers this species as invasive where it has spread from roadsides into multiple ecosystems.
Reference(s): 
4. Is the species (or cultivar or variety) noted as being invasive in the US or world in a similar climate?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
3
Confidence Level: 
High
Answer / Justification: 
While the species is not widely considered invasive, Pima County has included it in invasive species monitoring programs where it is noted as "invading multiple ecosystems types including desert, thornscrub, semi-desert grasslands, xeric riparian areas, and mesic riparian areas...African lovegrass may pose a threat to MSCP covered species, particularly in thornscrub and desert areas where it alters vegetation structure and provides a source of fine fuels for wildfires." (Webb 2020). Pima County, Arizona, does have a similar climate to California.
Reference(s): 
5. Are other species of the same genus (or closely related genera) invasive in a similar climate?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
Very High
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis is an extensive monophyletic genus with approximately 350 taxa distributed across the word, about 24 of which are introduced outside of their native range. No species of Eragrostis are currently considered invasive in California, however six other non-native species and one subspecies of the genus have been documented in California. Eragrostis lehmanniana, native to South Africa, has become invasive in southwestern United States, primarily Arizona and Mexico, where it was introduced for restoration. The regions of Arizona and Mexico that this species has invaded are a similar climate to California, similar to Eragrostis echinochloidea. This taxon has also been found in California and should be considered for a PRE review.
Reference(s): 
6. Is the species (or cultivar or variety) found predominately in a climate matching the region of concern?
Yes or No: 
No
Points: 
0
Confidence Level: 
High
Answer / Justification: 
The majority of this species native range is in Botswana and Namibia, regions that are more arid than the region of concern. In the limited regions that it has become naturalized, the climate does not match that of California. While the Precipitation and Hardiness layers on the Climate Match tool do match the primary native range for this taxon does match southern California and the southwestern desert region, overall the majority of the species range does not match.
Reference(s): 
Impact on Native Plants and Animals
7. Does this plant displace native plants and dominate (overtop or smother) the plant community in areas where it has established?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
Medium
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochloidae is a perennial bunch grass that can reach 1 meter tall; the plants grow in dense tufts or clumps and form mats (are cespitose), with erect stems. Plants that form dense clumps are capable of stabilizing substrate and potentially causing thick mats, thus have the ability to crowd out natives. However the plant is not a vine and does not have an overhanging cover and would not be at risk of smothering natives. This taxon has been reported as altering vegetation structure where it has invaded multiple ecosystems types including desert, thornscrub, semi-desert grasslands, xeric riparian areas, and mesic riparian areas, and has been reported as a potential threat to MSCP covered and sensitive species in Pima County, AZ.
Reference(s): 
8. Is the plant noted as promoting fire and/or changing fire regimes?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
High
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochoidea is reported as being capable of initiating grass-fire cycles in USA and provides a source for fine fuels for wildfires. In general, perennial grass dominated ecosystems burn more completely and generate higher temperatures than herbaceous and woody systems. However, it is not reported as forming monocultures where it has invaded, so while it can contribute positively to increased fire risk, it likely won't singularly drive fire.
Reference(s): 
9. Is the plant a health risk to humans or animals/fish? Has the species been noted as impacting grazing systems?
Yes or No: 
No
Points: 
0
Confidence Level: 
Very High
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochloidea is was not listed by CDFA (2015) as a noxious weed and is not included in the Cornell list of poisonous plants (2018) nor listed in the California Poison Control System (2023). It was potentially introduced to the US for the regeneration of rangelands and as a forage grass, however it does not have a high forage value and has a rating of moderate grazing value. Thus, while it might not be the most palatable forage grass, it is not toxic and does not pose as a health risk.
Reference(s): 
Van Devender, T. R., & Reina A.L. (0).  SONORA.
10. Does the plant produce impenetrable thickets, blocking or slowing movement of animals, livestock, or humans?
Yes or No: 
No
Points: 
0
Confidence Level: 
Very High
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochloidae is a perennial bunch grass that can reach 1 meter tall; the plants grow in dense tufts or clumps and form mats (are cespitose), with erect stems (culms). Plants that form dense clumps are capable of stabilizing substrate and potentially causing thick mats, however due to this plants height and lack of thorns, it does not prove as a physical barrier to humans, animals, or livestock.
Reference(s): 
Reproductive Strategies
11. Does this species (or cultivar or variety) reproduce and spread vegetatively?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
Medium
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochloidea has been reported as sometimes rooting at the nodes. Species of the Eragrostis genus can be stoloniferous or rhizomatous. There is very little other documentation of this taxon spreading or reproducing vegetatively, so while it has been reported that it can, this does not seem to be the primary mode of reproduction.
Reference(s): 
12. If naturally detached fragments from this plant are capable of producing new plants, is this a common method of reproduction for the plant?
Yes or No: 
No
Points: 
0
Confidence Level: 
High
Answer / Justification: 
As stated in question 11, Eragrostis echinochloidea has been reported as having the ability to root at the nodes, however this is not a common method of reproduction.
Reference(s): 
13. Does the species (or cultivar or variety) commonly produce viable seed?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
Very High
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochoildea primarily reproduces from seed.
Reference(s): 
14. Does this plant produce copious viable seeds each year (> 1000)?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
High
Answer / Justification: 
I was unable to find calculations in the literature of the number of viable seed Eragrostis echinochloidea can produce however I was able to ascertain an approximate number by calculating the average fertile florets per spikelet (5-16) and spikelets per raceme (~10) using numbers provided in the taxon's treatment. An individual inflorescence can easily produce on average 100 viable seeds per year, thus, a single plant would only need to produce 10 inflorescences per year. Personal observation of 147 verified photo occurrences on iNaturalist show that is not an uncommon occurrence, however it depends on the size of the individual plant. Young plants appear to be producing <10 inflorescences at a given point, and well established older individuals produce well over 10. Observational evidence shows that this species will flower throughout the year, and so the average adult plant could easily produce over 1000 seeds per year.
Reference(s): 
15. Is there significant germination (>25%) of seeds the next growing season, with no requirement of an infrequent environmental condition for seeds to germinate (i.e. fire) or long dormancy period?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
Medium
Answer / Justification: 
Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez et al. (2022) reports that germination of seeds occur in about 2 days after being stored in paper bags at 24C (75.2F) for 2-3 years after being cleaned, however germination rate was low, at less than 3%. These results are from a lab setting. However, other species in the Eragrostis genus have well documented germination rates. Eragrostis plana showed high germination rates (up to 98%) in optimal simulated conditions (Bittencourt et al 2017). Bittencourt et al (2016) also found a 85% germination rate of Eragrostis tenuifolia in a similar study. In an experiment testing seed treatments on Eragrostis lehmanniana, Haferkamp and Jordan (1977) found that the control sample had a germination rate of 36% just 48 hours after imbibition. In an earlier study, Wright (1973) found germination of untreated Eragrostis lehmanniana seeds to be as high as 80% 150 weeks post-harvest. The ample evidence that Eragrostris species have high germination rates imply that E. echinochloidea would too given a more controlled experiment. Thus, I am answering Yes with a Medium confidence here.
Reference(s): 
16. Does this plant produce viable seed within the first three years (for an herbaceous species) to five years (for a woody species) after germination?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
Very Low
Answer / Justification: 
CABI states that it has been reported that Eragrostis echinochloidea has a slow growth rate, however I was unable to verify this with the listed source (out of commission site). I was also unable to find any observations or reports regarding the amount of time it takes this species to develop fruit. However, many perennial grasses, including species of Eragrostis, produce seed within three years; Eragrostis secundiflora produces viable seed within the first year of planting (Maher and Reilley 2016).
Reference(s): 
17. Does this plant continuously produce seed for >3 months each year or does seed production occur more than once a year?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
Very High
Answer / Justification: 
Two sources (CalFlora and Flora of Israel) site this taxon of having a 1-2 month flowering period, however the sample size for both of these sources are unknown, and assumed to be small as vouchering of the taxon in California and Isreal is minimal. California Consortium of Herbaria list flowering time as in the spring and fall (February, April, September, and October) with a sample size of 9, however some of the vouchers used here were collected in South Africa, which, being in the Southern Hemisphere, has opposite seasons from the United States. That being said, in looking at verified iNaturalist photo observations in South Africa, Eragrostis echinochloidea can be found flowering throughout all 12 months of the year (n=72). In the Northern Hemisphere this species has been documented on iNaturalist (verified photos) as flowering almost every month out of the year, excluding January, July, and December (n=75). While it is unknown of one individual will produce seeds more than twice a year, it is appears that seeds can be continuously produced for over three months out of the year.
Reference(s): 
Dispersal
18. Are the plant’s propagules frequently dispersed long distance (>100 m) by mammals or birds or via domestic animals?
Yes or No: 
No
Points: 
0
Confidence Level: 
Low
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochloidea can be found throughout grazing rangeland, and some assessments have speculated that with proximity to livestock, the species could use animals as a vector, especially because of the minuscule size of the seeds (<1mm), However, seed size is not enough evidence and I was unable to find other supporting documentation of long distance dispersal via mammals or birds.
Reference(s): 
19. Are the plant’s propagules frequently dispersed long distance (>100 m) by wind or water?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
High
Answer / Justification: 
Eragrostis echinochloidea is naturalized and native to arid regions and is not generally find in wet environments, therefore dispersal via water is unlikely. However, this species, and its close relatives are dispersed via wind and have seed morphology that aides in distance wind dispersal (such as winged palea), which it shares with other naturalized members of the Eragrostis genus.
Reference(s): 
20. Are the plant’s propagules frequently dispersed via contaminated seed (agriculture or wildflower packets), equipment, vehicles, boats or clothing/shoes?
Yes or No: 
Yes
Points: 
1
Confidence Level: 
Medium
Answer / Justification: 
This species presence near highways, lots, disturbed sites and cattle farms suggests it is moving with vehicles, or otherwise anthropogenically. In Mexico, E. echinochloidea was first reported as an escaped forage grass in 2001 near a toll station of Road 15 at Magdalena de Kino, Sonora.
Reference(s): 
Reeder, J.R., & Redder C.G. (1985).  Notes on Arizona grasses.. Desert Plants 7(1):22-23. The University of Arizona. Tucson, AZ..
Van Devender, T. R., & Reina A.L. (0).  SONORA.
Evaluation Notes
Notes: 
Total PRE Score

  • < 13 : Low Potential Risk
  • 13 - 15 : Moderate Potential Risk
  • > 15 : High Potential Risk

PRE Score: 
19
Number of questions answered: 
20
Screener Confidence (%): 
78.0
PRE Content Access and Privacy
Organization: 
2023-2024 Western IPM Project
California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC)
Evaluation visibility: 
Public - accessible to all site users

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